References

Agarwal, Shivang and C Ravindranath Chowdary, ‘Combating Hate Speech Using an Adaptive Ensemble Learning Model with a Case Study on COVID-19’, Expert Systems with Applications, 185 (2021), 115632 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2021.115632

Anis Mashdurohatun, Yusfandi Usman, Toni Ariadi Efendi, Purwatik Purwatik and Istiniyati Istiniyati, ‘Rethinking Palm Oil Plastic Regulations for Sustainable and Ecological Justice’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 5 (2025), 500–530 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.681

Barber, Kate, ‘Legal Cynicism in Men’s Rights Discourses: Using Corpus Linguistics to Investigate How Distrust in the Legal System Excuses and Perpetuates Sexual Violence against Women’, Applied Corpus Linguistics, 5 (2025), 100148 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acorp.2025.100148

Borda, Aldo Zammit, ‘International Criminal Courts and Tribunals’, in Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (Third Edition), ed. by Lester R Kurtz, Third Edition (Oxford: Academic Press, 2022), pp. 627–33 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820195-4.00155-2

Bray, Kerry, Nils Braakmann and John Wildman, ‘Austerity, Welfare Cuts and Hate Crime: Evidence from the UK’s Age of Austerity’, Journal of Urban Economics, 141 (2024), 103439 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2022.103439

Chaemsaithong, Krisda and Kewalin Simuang, ‘Lawyers’ Metapragmatic Expressions in the Opening Speech of Anglo-American Criminal Trials’, Lingua, 289 (2023), 103536 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2023.103536

Chao, August FY, Chen-Shu Wang, Bo-Yi Li and Hong-Yan Chen, ‘From Hate to Harmony: Leveraging Large Language Models for Safer Speech in Times of COVID-19 Crisis’, Heliyon, 10 (2024), e35468 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35468

Chetty, Naganna and Sreejith Alathur, ‘Hate Speech Review in the Context of Online Social Networks’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40 (2018), 108–18 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.003

Choudhary, Mahima, Basant Agarwal and Vishnu Goyal, ‘Hate Speech Detection: Leveraging LLM-GPT2 with Fine-Tuning and Multi-Shot Techniques’, Procedia Computer Science, 258 (2025), 2817–25 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2025.04.542

Crowder, Stan, Shawn Mikulay and Brent E Turvey, ‘Chapter 2 - Ethical Issues for Students of Criminal Justice’, in Ethical Justice, ed. by Brent E Turvey and Stan Crowder (San Diego: Academic Press, 2013), pp. 21–62 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-404597-2.00002-4

DeLisi, Matt and Michael G Vaughn, ‘Foundation for a Temperament-Based Theory of Antisocial Behavior and Criminal Justice System Involvement’, Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (2014), 10–25 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.11.001

Demenko, Anna, ‘Jurisdiction in Online Speech Crime Cases in the European Union’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 80 (2025), 100718 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2024.100718

Dillon, Claire, Vikramaditya Joshi and Amra Sabic-El-Rayess, ‘Addressing Extremist Abuses of Medieval Pasts: A Connection-First Approach to Narratives of Hate’, International Journal of Educational Development, 111 (2024), 103160 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2024.103160

Donley, Amy M, James D Wright and Jerian Benwell-Lybarger, ‘Violence, Criminalization, and the Homeless’, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), ed. by James D Wright, Second Edition (Oxford: Elsevier, 2015), pp. 111–15 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.64101-6

Firmino, Anderson Almeida, Cláudio de Souza Baptista and Anselmo Cardoso de Paiva, ‘Improving Hate Speech Detection Using Cross-Lingual Learning’, Expert Systems with Applications, 235 (2024), 121115 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121115

Ghandour, Ahmad, Viktor Shestak and Konstantin Sokolovskiy, ‘Security and Privacy of Adolescents in Social Applications and Networks: Legislative Aspects and Legal Practice of Countering Cyberbullying on Example of Developed and Developing Countries’, Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 19 (2021), 433–45 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-09-2020-0101

Ghenai, Amira, Zeinab Noorian, Hadiseh Moradisani, Parya Abadeh, Caroline Erentzen and Fattane Zarrinkalam, ‘Exploring Hate Speech Dynamics: The Emotional, Linguistic, and Thematic Impact on Social Media Users’, Information Processing & Management, 62 (2025), 104079 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104079

Giorgini Pignatiello, Giacomo, ‘Countering Anti-Lgbti+ Bias in the European Union. A Comparative Analysis of Criminal Policies and Constitutional Issues in Italian, Spanish and French Legislation’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 86 (2021), 102466 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2021.102466

Gorwa, Robert, ‘Elections, Institutions, and the Regulatory Politics of Platform Governance: The Case of the German NetzDG’, Telecommunications Policy, 45 (2021), 102145 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2021.102145

Griffin, Rachel, ‘New School Speech Regulation as a Regulatory Strategy against Hate Speech on Social Media: The Case of Germany’s NetzDG’, Telecommunications Policy, 46 (2022), 102411 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2022.102411

Guo, Zhilong, Jie Hao and Lewis Kennedy, ‘Protection Path of Personal Data and Privacy in China: Moving from Monism to Dualism in Civil Law and Then in Criminal Law’, Computer Law & Security Review, 52 (2024), 105928 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105928

Hashmi, Ehtesham, Sule Yildirim Yayilgan, Muhammad Mudassar Yamin, Mohamed Abomhara and Mohib Ullah, ‘Self-Supervised Hate Speech Detection in Norwegian Texts with Lexical and Semantic Augmentations’, Expert Systems with Applications, 264 (2025), 125843 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2024.125843

Helfgott, Jacqueline B, ‘Criminal Behavior and the Copycat Effect: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework for Empirical Investigation’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 22 (2015), 46–64 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.02.002

Ibrahim, Yasmine M, Reem Essameldin and Saad M Darwish, ‘An Adaptive Hate Speech Detection Approach Using Neutrosophic Neural Networks for Social Media Forensics’, Computers, Materials and Continua, 79 (2024), 243–62 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2024.047840

Ibrohim, Muhammad Okky and Indra Budi, ‘Hate Speech and Abusive Language Detection in Indonesian Social Media: Progress and Challenges’, Heliyon, 9 (2023), e18647 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18647

Jorgensen, Julia, ‘The Functions of Sarcastic Irony in Speech’, Journal of Pragmatics, 26 (1996), 613–34 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(95)00067-4

Kaminska, Olha, Chris Cornelis and Veronique Hoste, ‘Fuzzy Rough Nearest Neighbour Methods for Detecting Emotions, Hate Speech and Irony’, Information Sciences, 625 (2023), 521–35 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2023.01.054

Kapil, Prashant and Asif Ekbal, ‘A Deep Neural Network Based Multi-Task Learning Approach to Hate Speech Detection’, Knowledge-Based Systems, 210 (2020), 106458 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2020.106458

Kar, Purbani and Swapan Debbarma, ‘Sentimental Analysis & Hate Speech Detection on English and German Text Collected from Social Media Platforms Using Optimal Feature Extraction and Hybrid Diagonal Gated Recurrent Neural Network’, Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 126 (2023), 107143 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2023.107143

Kloos, David, ‘A Crazy State’, Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 170 (2014), 25–65 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-17001003

Labadie-Tamayo, Roberto, Djordje Slijepčević, Xihui Chen, Adrian Jaques Böck, Andreas Babic, Liz Freimann, and others, ‘Distilling Knowledge from Large Language Models: A Concept Bottleneck Model for Hate and Counter Speech Recognition’, Information Processing & Management, 63 (2026), 104309 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104309

Lanza, Giulia, ‘The Fundamental Role of International (Criminal) Law in the War in Ukraine’, Orbis, 66 (2022), 424–35 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2022.05.010

Levin, Jack and Jack McDevitt, ‘Hate Crimes’, in Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (Third Edition), ed. by Lester R Kurtz, Third Edition (Oxford: Academic Press, 2022), pp. 28–34 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820195-4.00040-6

Lievens, Eva, ‘Bullying and Sexting in Social Networks: Protecting Minors from Criminal Acts or Empowering Minors to Cope with Risky Behaviour?’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 42 (2014), 251–70 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2014.02.001

Maarif, Samsul, ‘Re-Establishing Human-Nature Relations: Responses of Indigenous People of Indonesia to Covid-19’, Interdisciplinary Journal for Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society, 7 (2021), 447–72 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.30965/23642807-bja10023

Maaß, Sabrina, Jil Wortelker and Armin Rott, ‘Evaluating the Regulation of Social Media: An Empirical Study of the German NetzDG and Facebook’, Telecommunications Policy, 48 (2024), 102719 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102719

Marder, Ian D, ‘Mapping Restorative Justice and Restorative Practices in Criminal Justice in the Republic of Ireland’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 70 (2022), 100544 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2022.100544

McKearney, Aidan, ‘Changing Contexts: From Criminal to Citizen’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 33 (2019), 515–26 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2018-0331

Miller, Ronald and Brent E Turvey, ‘Chapter 9 - Ethical Issues for Criminal Prosecutors’, in Ethical Justice, ed. by Brent E Turvey and Stan Crowder (San Diego: Academic Press, 2013), pp. 257–316 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-404597-2.00009-7

Modha, Sandip, Prasenjit Majumder, Thomas Mandl and Chintak Mandalia, ‘Detecting and Visualizing Hate Speech in Social Media: A Cyber Watchdog for Surveillance’, Expert Systems with Applications, 161 (2020), 113725 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2020.113725

Mossie, Zewdie and Jenq-Haur Wang, ‘Vulnerable Community Identification Using Hate Speech Detection on Social Media’, Information Processing & Management, 57 (2020), 102087 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2019.102087

Mugari, Ishmael and Caleb Muzinda, ‘Social Media: The Double-Edged Sword for Perpetuating and Preventing Criminal Activities in Zimbabwe’, Safer Communities, 20 (2021), 225–36 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/SC-02-2021-0004

Muhammad, Rustamaji, Shalih Mangara Sitompul, Tojiboyev Sarvar Zafarovich and Rahimah Embong, ‘The Reduction of Criminal Justice Policy in Indonesia: Justice versus Virality’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 5 (2025), 442–72 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.637

Nave, Eva and Lottie Lane, ‘Countering Online Hate Speech: How Does Human Rights Due Diligence Impact Terms of Service?’, Computer Law & Security Review, 51 (2023), 105884 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105884

Pamungkas, Endang Wahyu, Valerio Basile and Viviana Patti, ‘A Joint Learning Approach with Knowledge Injection for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Hate Speech Detection’, Information Processing & Management, 58 (2021), 102544 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102544

Parvaresh, Vahid, ‘Covertly Communicated Hate Speech: A Corpus-Assisted Pragmatic Study’, Journal of Pragmatics, 205 (2023), 63–77 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2022.12.009

Purdey, Jemma, ‘Describing Kekerasan; Some Observations on Writing about Violence in Indonesia after the New Order’, Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 160 (2004), 189–225 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003726

Sadeghi, Atiyeh, Sebastian Pape and David Harborth, ‘The Impact of Individuals’ Social Environments on Contact Tracing App Use: Survey Study’, JMIR Human Factors, 10 (2023) https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2196/45825

Schlesinger, Louis B and Tirza Z Ben-Ari, ‘Personality Disorders and Criminal Behavior’, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Third Edition (Third Edition), ed. by Max M Houck, Third Edition (Oxford: Elsevier, 2023), pp. 133–43 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823677-2.00057-X

Sell, Aaron and Daniel Sznycer, ‘Societal Institutions Echo Evolved Human Nature: An Analysis of the Western Criminal Justice System and Its Relation to Anger’, Evolution and Human Behavior, 44 (2023), 210–21 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.01.007

Shenkin, Evan N and Michele Abee, ‘International Spaces for Feminist Cross-Border Resistance’, Political Geography, 112 (2024), 103111 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2024.103111

Solhjell, Randi, ‘How Acts Become Hate Crime: The Police’s Documenting of Criminal Cases’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 72 (2023), 100574 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2022.100574

Spaid, Sue, ‘Chapter 18 - On Deterring Hate Speech, While Maximizing Security and Privacy’, in Ethics in Online AI-Based Systems, ed. by Santi Caballé, Joan Casas-Roma, and Jordi Conesa, Intelligent Data-Centric Systems (Academic Press, 2024), pp. 365–81 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-18851-0.00021-4

Srivastava, Atul Kumar, Mitali Srivastava, Sanchali Das, Vikas Jain and Tej Bahadur Chandra, ‘Leveraging Deep Learning for Comprehensive Multilingual Hate Speech Detection’, Procedia Computer Science, 252 (2025), 832–40 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2025.01.044

Sukabdi, Zora A, ‘Bridging the Gap: Contributions of Academics and National Security Practitioners to Counterterrorism in Indonesia’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 65 (2021), 100467 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2021.100467

Sultan, Daniyar, Aigerim Toktarova, Ainur Zhumadillayeva, Sapargali Aldeshov, Shynar Mussiraliyeva, Gulbakhram Beissenova, and others, ‘Cyberbullying-Related Hate Speech Detection Using Shallow-to-Deep Learning’, Computers, Materials and Continua, 74 (2022), 2115–31 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2023.032993

Sundari, Elisabeth, Helidorus Chandera Halim and Ousu Mendy, ‘Should Indonesia Adopt Legal Representation in Civil Cases?’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 5 (2025), 554–80 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.604

Tan, Tay Keong, ‘Chapter 17 - Curse of the Cyborg Mammoths: The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Manipulating and Mobilizing Human Emotions’, in Ethics in Online AI-Based Systems, ed. by Santi Caballé, Joan Casas-Roma, and Jordi Conesa, Intelligent Data-Centric Systems (Academic Press, 2024), pp. 347–64 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-18851-0.00018-4

Turvey, Brent E and Aurelio Coronado, ‘Chapter 2 - Victimity: Entering the Criminal Justice System’, in Forensic Victimology (Third Edition), ed. by Brent E Turvey, Third Edition (San Diego: Academic Press, 2023), pp. 33–76 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821768-9.00002-1

Udanor, Collins and Chinatu C Anyanwu, ‘Combating the Challenges of Social Media Hate Speech in a Polarized Society’, Data Technologies and Applications, 53 (2019), 501–27 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/DTA-01-2019-0007

del Valle-Cano, Gloria, Lara Quijano-Sánchez, Federico Liberatore and Jesús Gómez, ‘SocialHaterBERT: A Dichotomous Approach for Automatically Detecting Hate Speech on Twitter through Textual Analysis and User Profiles’, Expert Systems with Applications, 216 (2023), 119446 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2022.119446

Wagner, Ben, Matthias C Kettemann, Anna Sophia Tiedeke, Felicitas Rachinger and Marie-Therese Sekwenz, ‘Mapping Interpretations of the Law in Online Content Moderation in Germany’, Computer Law & Security Review, 55 (2024), 106054 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106054

Wisnubroto, Aloysius and Hilaire Tegnan, ‘Preventing AI Crime Towards A New Legal Paradigm: Lessons From United States’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 5 (2025), 630–58 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.606

Wright, Craig, ‘Chapter 21 - Information Systems Legislation’, in The IT Regulatory and Standards Compliance Handbook, ed. by Craig Wright (Burlington: Syngress, 2008), pp. 609–71 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-59749-266-9.00021-7

Yasmin, Musarat, Tahira Jabeen and Sania Noor, ‘Examining Digital Hate: Gendered Discursive Strategies in Online Harassment of Pakistani Influencers’, Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 19 (2025), 100759 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100759

Zahrah, Fatima, Jason RC Nurse and Michael Goldsmith, ‘Unmasking Hate in the Pandemic: A Cross-Platform Study of the COVID-19 Infodemic’, Big Data Research, 37 (2024), 100481 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bdr.2024.100481

Zapata Rozo, Andrés, Alejandra Campo-Archbold, Daniel Díaz-López, Ian Gray, Javier Pastor-Galindo, Pantaleone Nespoli, and others, ‘Cyber Democracy in the Digital Age: Characterizing Hate Networks in the 2022 US Midterm Elections’, Information Fusion, 110 (2024), 102459 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2024.102459