Ayik Christina Efata (1), Retno Mawarini (2), Widyorini Indriasti Wardani (3), Mohammad Ishaque Husain (4)
This study examines the legal implications of land conversion as a process that alters land use either partially or entirely and consequently affects environmental sustainability and the productive capacity of land resources. The increasing transformation of agricultural land into non-agricultural uses reduces the availability of productive farmland and generates serious challenges for government authorities in maintaining food security and ensuring sustainable land governance. Economic growth, urban expansion, and development policies frequently encourage the conversion of agricultural land and thereby intensify pressure on the availability of land that supports long term agricultural production. These conditions require a regulatory framework that is capable of balancing development interests with the protection of agricultural land resources. This research analyzes the regulatory framework governing the conversion of sustainable food agricultural land into non-agricultural uses, identifies the factors that create the absence of legal certainty in its implementation, and formulates a reconstruction of regulatory policies that can strengthen legal certainty in land governance. The study applies a normative juridical research method supported by empirical data and uses statutory, conceptual, and comparative approaches to examine the issue systematically. The analysis demonstrates that first, the legal system has integrated land conversion regulation within the broader framework of sustainable agricultural land protection and spatial planning governance. Second, implementation has not produced adequate legal certainty because uncontrolled land conversion continues to occur, land use practices frequently diverge from spatial planning policies, regulatory substance remains weak, law enforcement operates ineffectively, and institutional coordination remains limited. Third, strengthening legal certainty requires regulatory reconstruction through harmonization of regulatory instruments, improvement of mapping mechanisms supported by field verification, and stronger coordination between central and regional governments.
Adha, Afdal, Muhammad Ilham Adhynugraha, Fithri Nur Purnamastuti, Fadli Cahya Megawanto, Budiyanto, Chairunnisa, and others, ‘Indonesia’s Path to Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Evaluating Feedstock Potential from Agricultural Residue’, Biomass and Bioenergy, 209 (2026), 108927 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2026.108927
Afriani, Maria Delavega and Stephen Poletti, ‘Evaluating Renewable Energy Pathways and Emissions Targets in Indonesia: An OSeMOSYS-Based Economic and Sensitivity Analysis of PLN’, Energy Policy, 211 (2026), 115093 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2026.115093
Agussabti, Agussabti, Agus Nugroho, Adhyta Puspita Summase, Rasdiana Mudatsir and Idris Summase, ‘Institutional Framework for Improving Food Security in Crisis-Prone Areas in Indonesia’, Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 2026, 102774 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2026.102774
Aryapratama, Rio, Simon Schulte and Stefan Pauliuk, ‘Climate Change Mitigation Potential of Producing Wood-Based Materials and Energy from Restoring Degraded Land in Indonesia – A Nation-Wide Scenario Analysis’, Biomass and Bioenergy, 211 (2026), 109191 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2026.109191
Bolman, Bas, Rizka Akmalia, Isten Tamba, Wesley van Veggel, Heleen Vreugdenhil, Restiana W Ariyati, and others, ‘Assessing Community Perceptions on the Socio-Economic Feasibility of Green Mussel Cultivation in Demak, Indonesia’, Nature-Based Solutions, 9 (2026), 100299 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2025.100299
Brockhaus, Maria, Krystof Obidzinski, Ahmad Dermawan, Yves Laumonier and Cecilia Luttrell, ‘An Overview of Forest and Land Allocation Policies in Indonesia: Is the Current Framework Sufficient to Meet the Needs of REDD+?’, Forest Policy and Economics, 18 (2012), 30–37 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2011.09.004
Budiharta, Sugeng and Karen D Holl, ‘Harnessing Opportunities to Upscale Forest Landscape Restoration in Indonesia’, Trees, Forests and People, 21 (2025), 100917 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2025.100917
Chervier, Colas, Stibniati S Atmadja, Sandy Nofyanza, Choiriatun Nur Annisa, Fitri Nurfatriani, Rochadi Kristiningrum, and others, ‘Impact of Indonesia’s Forest Management Units on the Reduction of Forest Loss and Forest Fires in Sulawesi’, Ecological Economics, 227 (2025), 108418 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108418
Danandjojo, Yescha Nuradisa Ekarachmi, Samira Ramezani, Johan Woltjer and Taede Tillema, ‘Stakeholder Relations in Land Value Capture (LVC) within a Government-Led Decentralized Governance System: The Case of Transport Infrastructure Development’, Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 36 (2026), 101903 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2026.101903
Darwin, Ira Safitri, Haryo Winarso and Denny Zulkaidi, ‘The Role of Customary Land Ownership in Land-Use Conversion in the Peri-Urban of Bukittinggi, Indonesia’, Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 175 (2019), 533–55 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-17504002
Delfirman and Hilmy M Dzaki, ‘Shifts in the Control of Natural Resources: An Analysis of the Resource Curse in Tin-Rich Bangka Belitung, Indonesia’, The Extractive Industries and Society, 23 (2025), 101682 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2025.101682
Edwards, Ryan B, ‘Export Agriculture and Rural Poverty: Evidence from Indonesian Palm Oil’, Journal of International Economics, 159 (2026), 104209 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2025.104209
Endarto, Budi, Dwi Elok Indriastuty and Fitra Mardiana, ‘Legal Transplantation of Blue Bond Regulation in Indonesia’, Environmental Development, 53 (2025), 101118 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2024.101118
Faxon, Hilary Oliva, Jenny E Goldstein, Micah R Fisher and Glenn Hunt, ‘Territorializing Spatial Data: Controlling Land through One Map Projects in Indonesia and Myanmar’, Political Geography, 98 (2022), 102651 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102651
Firman, T, ‘Major Issues in Indonesia’s Urban Land Development’, Land Use Policy, 21 (2004), 347–55 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2003.04.002
Fitrady, Ardyanto, Annisa Cahyaningsih and Febryani Nugrahaningsih, ‘At What Cost? Economic and Fiscal Trade-Offs of Indonesia’s Biodiesel Program’, Energy Policy, 212 (2026), 115134 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2026.115134
Gunawan, Hendra, Titiek Setyawati, Tri Atmoko, Subarudi, Rozza Tri Kwatrina, Irma Yeny, and others, ‘A Review of Forest Fragmentation in Indonesia under the DPSIR Framework for Biodiversity Conservation Strategies’, Global Ecology and Conservation, 51 (2024), e02918 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e02918
Halimatussadiah, A, FR Moeis, AA Siregar and D Nainggolan, ‘The Potentials of Indonesian Biofuel Policy’s Replanting Scheme to Reduce Poverty and Enhance Regional Economy’, Land Use Policy, 157 (2025), 107623 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2025.107623
Harahap, Rima, Gerd Masselink and Sarah J Boulton, ‘A Coastal Risk Analysis for the Outermost Small Islands of Indonesia: A Multiple Natural Hazards Approach’, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 121 (2025), 105377 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105377
Harari, Mariaflavia and Maisy Wong, ‘Colonial Legacy and Land Market Formality’, Journal of Urban Economics, 149 (2025), 103789 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2025.103789
Hardiyanto, Barid, ‘Politics of Land Policies in Indonesia in the Era of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’, Land Use Policy, 101 (2021), 105134 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105134
Haribowo, Riyanto, Muchammad Ja’far Shiddik, Muthi’ah Raudhatul Jannah, Pradinska Nahda Wafiya, Sharon Kezya Java Irawan, Hizkia Kharah Anggi Sihombing, and others, ‘Decoding Microplastic Risks through Land Use: A Multi-Index and Spatial Analysis in a Tropical Watershed’, Regional Studies in Marine Science, 91 (2025), 104600 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2025.104600
Hasibuan, Hayati Sari, Mari Eko Mulyani, Muhammad Attorik Falensky, Muhammad Fadel Aginda and Rudy Parluhutan Tambunan, ‘Capital City Status and Policy Influence on Land Dynamics: A Case Study of Sofifi, North Maluku Archipelago, Indonesia’, City and Environment Interactions, 28 (2025), 100253 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2025.100253
Hasim, Irfan Sabarilah, Indah Widiastuti, Budi Faisal and Iwan Sudradjat, ‘The Birth and Demise of a Village within the Vernacular Community of Baduy in Banten, Indonesia’, Frontiers of Architectural Research, 14 (2025), 127–44 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2024.07.011
Isfarin, Nadia Nurani, Meita Eka Fara, Heru Nur Krisna, Synthiya Machdani and Miftakul Munir, ‘Microplastics in Indonesian Land and Aquatic Environment: From Research Activities to Regulation Policies’, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 206 (2024), 116813 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116813
Jalilov, Shokhrukh-Mirzo, Yanto Rochmayanto, Dian Charity Hidayat, Jany Tri Raharjo, Daniel Mendham and James Douglas Langston, ‘Unveiling Economic Dimensions of Peatland Restoration in Indonesia: A Systematic Literature Review’, Ecosystem Services, 71 (2025), 101693 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2024.101693
Juniyanti, Lila and Rospita Odorlina Pilianna Situmorang, ‘What Causes Deforestation and Land Cover Change in Riau Province, Indonesia’, Forest Policy and Economics, 153 (2023), 102999 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102999
Krishna, Vijesh V, Christoph Kubitza, Unai Pascual and Matin Qaim, ‘Land Markets, Property Rights, and Deforestation: Insights from Indonesia’, World Development, 99 (2017), 335–49 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.018
Kubitza, Christoph, Vijesh V Krishna, Kira Urban, Zulkifli Alamsyah and Matin Qaim, ‘Land Property Rights, Agricultural Intensification, and Deforestation in Indonesia’, Ecological Economics, 147 (2018), 312–21 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.01.021
Kunz, Yvonne, Stefanie Steinebach, Christoph Dittrich, Brigitta Hauser-Schäublin, Ir Rosyani, Endriatmo Soetarto, and others, ‘“The Fridge in the Forest”: Historical Trajectories of Land Tenure Regulations Fostering Landscape Transformation in Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia’, Forest Policy and Economics, 81 (2017), 1–9 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2017.04.005
Kurnianto, Sofyan, Abdul Jabbar, Nurul A Fitriyah, Adibtya Asyhari, Murugesan Balamurugan, Chandra P Ghimire, and others, ‘Hydrological Dynamics in a Tropical Peatland Mosaic at Pulau Padang, Indonesia: Influence of Land-Cover Changes and Rainfall Variability’, Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 64 (2026), 103185 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2026.103185
Kurosaki, Takashi, Saumik Paul and Firman Witoelar, ‘In Pursuit of Power: Land Tenancy Contracts and Local Political Business Cycles in Indonesia’, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 227 (2024), 106764 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2024.106764
Li, Shuai, Zhenyu Dan and Tubing Yin, ‘Mining-Induced Land Use Change and Ecological Restoration: Lessons from Three Developing Economies’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 142 (2026), 104267 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2025.104267
Malahayati, Marissa and Toshihiko Masui, ‘The Impact of Green House Gas Mitigation Policy for Land Use and the Forestry Sector in Indonesia: Applying the Computable General Equilibrium Model’, Forest Policy and Economics, 109 (2019), 102003 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.102003
Mellawati, June, Oumar Bobo Modibo, Murdahayu Makmur, Eko Budi Jumpeno, Evans Azka Fajrianshah, Tri Retno Dyah Larasati, and others, ‘Assessment of Health Risks Linked to Natural Radionuclides Contained in Vegetables from Ex-Mining, and Non-Mining Land’, Scientific African, 30 (2025), e02988 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02988
Noor, Aslan, Guntur Atur Parulian, Fachrully Pratama, Rahmi Zubaedah and Imanudin Affandi, ‘Digital Management of Legal Records: Analyzing User Acceptance of Digital Land Management’, Records Management Journal, 35 (2025), 310–25 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/RMJ-11-2024-0051
Obidzinski, Krystof, Ikuko Takahashi, Ahmad Dermawan, Heru Komarudin and Agus Andrianto, ‘Can Large Scale Land Acquisition for Agro-Development in Indonesia Be Managed Sustainably?’, Land Use Policy, 30 (2013), 952–65 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.06.018
Prayitno, Gunawan, Dian Dinanti, Izzatul Ihsansi Hidayana and Achmad Tjachja Nugraha, ‘Place Attachment and Agricultural Land Conversion for Sustainable Agriculture in Indonesia’, Heliyon, 7 (2021), e07546 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07546
Purwanto, Siti Latifah, Yonariza, Farid Akhsani, Eva Indra Sofiana and Mohammad Riski Ferdiansah, ‘Land Cover Change Assessment Using Random Forest and CA Markov from Remote Sensing Images in the Protected Forest of South Malang, Indonesia’, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 32 (2023), 101061 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2023.101061
Reerink, Gustaaf and Jean-Louis van Gelder, ‘Land Titling, Perceived Tenure Security, and Housing Consolidation in the Kampongs of Bandung, Indonesia’, Habitat International, 34 (2010), 78–85 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.07.002
Resosudarmo, Ida Aju Pradnja, Luca Tacconi, Sean Sloan, Faridh Almuhayat Uhib Hamdani, Subarudi, Iis Alviya, and others, ‘Indonesia’s Land Reform: Implications for Local Livelihoods and Climate Change’, Forest Policy and Economics, 108 (2019), 101903 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.04.007
Rifai, Muhamad Amin, Charline Depoorter, Nunung Nuryartono, Miet Maertens and Axel Marx, ‘National and Voluntary Sustainability Standards: Convergence or Divergence? Insights from Indonesian Agri-Food Export Sectors’, Earth System Governance, 27 (2026), 100311 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2026.100311
Rizal, Achmad and Muh Saleh Nurdin, ‘The Perspectives of Small-Scale Fishermen on Coastal Zone Management, Donggala, Indonesia: From Perception to Management Plan’, Marine Policy, 188 (2026), 107088 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2026.107088
Ronyastra, I Made, Lip Huat Saw and Foon Siang Low, ‘Techno-Economic Analysis with Financial Risk Identification for Solar Power Plant as Post-Mining Land Use in Indonesia’, Energy for Sustainable Development, 80 (2024), 101462 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2024.101462
Saputra, Irfan, Fatwa Faturachmat, Andi Vika Faradiba Muin, Nurhady Sirimorok and Muhammad Alif K Sahide, ‘Sequencing the Political Forest: Power, Exclusion, and the Corporate Hijacking of Social Forestry in Indonesia’, Forest Policy and Economics, 181 (2025), 103668 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2025.103668
Shiri, Zahra, Quang Bao Le, Hassen Ouerghemmi and Hichem Rejeb, ‘Landscape Approaches for Sustainable Land Systems: A Critical Systematic Review of Frameworks, Governance, and Socio-Ecological Outcomes’, Landscape Architecture and Sustainability, 2 (2025), 100007 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.las.2025.100007
Silalahi, Mangarah, Dodik R Nurrochmat, Rhett D Harrison, Irdika Mansur, Thomas A Walsh and Habibi, ‘Reconciling Different Interests in the Hutan Harapan Rainforest Ecosystem Restoration Management in Sumatra, Indonesia’, Trees, Forests and People, 20 (2025), 100823 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2025.100823
Sirait, MT, B White and U Pradhan, ‘Chapter 9 - Land Rights and Land Reform Issues for Effective Natural Resources Management in Indonesia’, in Redefining Diversity & Dynamics of Natural Resources Management in Asia, Volume 1, ed. by Ganesh P Shivakoti, Ujjwal Pradhan, and Helmi (Elsevier, 2017), pp. 141–55 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805454-3.00009-8
Sokoy, Fredrik, ‘Social Conflict between the Amungme and Kamoro Traditional Tribe and Freeport Indonesia Company on Environmental Impact’, Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 13 (2026), 102432 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.102432
Suwardi, Adi Bejo, Zidni Ilman Navia, Imam Hadi Sutrisno, Efriani, Henry Elisa, Rikhsan Kurniatuhadi, and others, ‘Ecological Functions, Ecosystem Services, and Biocultural Significance of Wild Edible Fruits in a Biodiversity Hotspot: Evidence from West Kalimantan, Indonesia’, Ecological Frontiers, 46 (2026), 627–35 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecofro.2025.10.014
Tacconi, Luca and Muhammad Zahrul Muttaqin, ‘Reducing Emissions from Land Use Change in Indonesia: An Overview’, Forest Policy and Economics, 108 (2019), 101979 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.101979
Taktak, Fatih, ‘Comparative Building Amnesty and Land Use Policies: Insights from Ten Countries with a Focus on Turkey’, Land Use Policy, 158 (2025), 107763 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2025.107763
Tias, Pisca A, Constance L McDermott and Mari E Mulyani, ‘Navigating the Nexus between Customary Norms and State Laws in Shaping Rural Forest Governance: A Case Study in Aceh Province, Indonesia’, Forest Policy and Economics, 182 (2026), 103672 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2025.103672
Toumbourou, Tessa, ‘Using a Delphi Approach to Identify the Most Efficacious Interventions to Improve Indonesia’s Forest and Land Governance’, Land Use Policy, 99 (2020), 102768 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.05.017
Vitriana, Anita, Sara Özogul, Sarah Mawhorter and Johan Woltjer, ‘Market Mechanisms and Low-Income Housing Patterns in the Context of Urban Growth: Study of Developer Behaviours in Bandung Metropolitan Area Indonesia’, Geoforum, 170 (2026), 104565 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2026.104565
Wahid, Muhammad Nurdin, Muhammad Asif, Muhammad Imran Khan and Muhammad Khalid, ‘A Strategic Analysis of Geothermal Energy for Sustainable Energy Transition: Case Study from Indonesia’, Energy Conversion and Management: X, 28 (2025), 101303 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101303
Widianingsih, Nayu Nuringdati, Wahyudi David, Mariève Pouliot and Ida Theilade, ‘Land Use, Income, and Ethnic Diversity in the Margins of Hutan Harapan – A Rainforest Restoration Concession in Jambi and South Sumatra, Indonesia’, Land Use Policy, 86 (2019), 268–79 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.05.006
Widyatmanti, Wirastuti, Budiman Minasny, Disyacitta Awanda, Deha Agus Umarhadi, Zealandia Sarah Nurul Fatma, William Krista Mahendra, and others, ‘Codification to Secure Indonesian Peatlands: From Policy to Practices as Revealed by Remote Sensing Analysis’, Soil Security, 9 (2022), 100080 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisec.2022.100080
Wiloso, Edi Iswanto, Adisa Ramadhan Wiloso, Arief Ameir Rahman Setiawan, Joni Jupesta, Kai Fang, Reinout Heijungs, and others, ‘Indonesia’s Contribution to Global Carbon Flows: Which Sectors Are Most Responsible for the Emissions Embodied in Trade?’, Sustainable Production and Consumption, 48 (2024), 157–68 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.05.005
Wulandari, Wahyu, Testriono and Moch Faisal Karim, ‘Adopting the Palm Oil Moratorium Under External Pressure: Indonesia’s Response to the EU’s RED II’, Forest Policy and Economics, 182 (2026), 103692 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2025.103692
Yogi, Anang Pra, Bhimo Rizky Samudro, Albertus Maqnus Soesilo and Yogi Pasca Pratama, ‘Land Use and Cover Change (LUCC) and Migration in Sukoharjo, Indonesia’, International Journal of Ethics and Systems, 38 (2022), 465–83 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOES-01-2021-0005
Zhu, Jieming and Hendricus Andy Simarmata, ‘Formal Land Rights versus Informal Land Rights: Governance for Sustainable Urbanization in the Jakarta Metropolitan Region, Indonesia’, Land Use Policy, 43 (2015), 63–73 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.10.016