Muhammad Rustamaji (1), Shalih Mangara Sitompul (2), Wan Mohd Khairul Firdaus (3)
Corruption, particularly in the forms of bribery and extortion, remains a persistent problem within Indonesia’s social, political, and bureaucratic systems. Despite the existence of a comprehensive Anti-Corruption Law and related regulations, law enforcement authorities continue to encounter structural, substantive, and legal-cultural challenges in combating corruption effectively. This study aims to analyze the governance of criminal penalties in corruption cases, with a specific focus on extortion-related offenses. The research employs a normative legal method, utilizing legislative, comparative, and philosophical approaches to assess the coherence and effectiveness of existing legal norms. The findings demonstrate, first, that Articles 5, 6, and 12B of the Anti-Corruption Law contain overlapping legal elements, resulting in ambiguity in distinguishing between bribery and gratification and undermining the principles of legal certainty, clarity, and strict interpretation of criminal law. Second, the absence of clear normative boundaries has contributed to inconsistent law enforcement practices and unequal application of criminal sanctions. Third, a comparative analysis indicates that Malaysia has achieved greater regulatory coherence and institutional effectiveness through comprehensive legal reforms, particularly under the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission Act 2009, which aligns with international anti-corruption standards. This study concludes that legal reform in Indonesia should prioritize the harmonization of provisions on bribery and gratification, the clarification of corporate criminal liability, the strengthening of institutional independence, and enhanced inter-institutional coordination to achieve more effective, integrated, and targeted anti-corruption law enforcement.
Abas Azmi, Khairul Saidah, and Rozaimah Zainudin, ‘Money in Politics: A Recipe for Corruption in Malaysia’, Journal of Financial Crime, 28.2 (2021), 593–606 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-07-2020-0147>
Agustina, Lidya, SeTin SeTin, and Debbianita Debbianita, ‘University Mission Statements and Anti-Fraud Disclosures: Public vs Private Universities in Indonesia’, Journal of Financial Crime, 32.4 (2025), 790–803 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-06-2024-0185>
Al-haimi, Basheer, Nor Arshadah Binti Abdul Kadir, Sathiasilan Subramanian, and Hafifah Binti Kadir, ‘Lessons Learned From Small Business Policies in Malaysia and Singapore’, in International Encyclopedia of Business Management (Elsevier, 2026), pp. 223–36 <https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13701-3.00320-0>
Alfano, Vincenzo, Salvatore Capasso, and Lodovico Santoro, ‘Corruption and the Political System: Some Evidence from Italian Regions’, Italian Economic Journal, 9.2 (2023), 665–95 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s40797-022-00198-z>
Aloumi, Noura Taha, ‘Corporate Criminal Liability for Bribery in Kuwait: Issues in Disclosing Commissions’, Journal of Financial Crime, 29.3 (2022), 1102–13 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-04-2021-0081>
AlQodsi, Enas Mohammed, Iyad Mohammad Jadalhaq, Mohammed El Hadi El Maknouzi, and Imad Eldin Ahmad Abdulhay, ‘Suspension of the Statute of Limitations for Civil Claims: A Comparative Study of Arab Legislations’, Social Sciences and Humanities Open, 10.May (2024) <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101129>
Amer, Amera Mohammed Ahmed, Awadh Ahmed Mohammed Gamal, Norasibah Abdul Jalil, Gan Pei-Tha, Zainzam Zakariya, and Mohammed Umar, ‘Re-Evaluating the Malaysian Shadow Economy: Evidence from Public Expenditure Patterns’, Journal of Financial Crime, 32.4 (2025), 950–69 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-08-2024-0246>
Andiojaya, Agung, ‘Do Stronger Anti Money Laundering (AML) Measures Reduce Crime? An Empirical Study on Corruption, Bribery, and Environmental Crime’, Journal of Economic Criminology, 8 (2025), 100157 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100157>
Apaydin, Fulya, ‘Space Policy and Industrial Development in Middle Powers: Malaysia and Turkey in Comparative Perspective’, Space Policy, 2025, 101723 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2025.101723>
Capasso, Salvatore, and Lodovico Santoro, ‘Corruption and Economic Growth: Greasing the Wheels or Sanding the Gears? Evidence from Italian Regions’, Journal of Policy Modeling, 47.6 (2025), 1158–79 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2025.09.007>
Chiao, Yu-Ching, Yu-Chen Chang, and Chun-Chien Lin, ‘Bribery, Local Network, and Local Performance among Multinational Corporations: A Moderated Mediation Model of Informal Competition’, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 40.6 (2025), 1298–1311 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-04-2024-0284>
Dhillon, Amrita, and Antonio Nicolò, ‘Moral Costs of Corruption: A Review of the Literature’, in Law and Economic Development (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023), pp. 93–129 <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24938-9_5>
Ding, Rui, Xianjia Wang, Ji Quan, Shuting Ma, and Jinhua Zhao, ‘The Evolution of Cooperation and Punishment in Spatial Public Goods Games with Bribery’, Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, 193 (2025), 116135 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2025.116135>
Fang, Hanming, and Rongjie Zhang, ‘Corruption Stereotype and the Unintended Consequences of an Anti-Corruption Campaign: Evidence from the Real Estate Sector in China’, Journal of Public Economics, 249 (2025), 105474 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105474>
Gebka, Bartosz, Rama Prasad Kanungo, and John Wildman, ‘The Transition from COVID-19 Infections to Deaths: Do Governance Quality and Corruption Affect It?’, Journal of Policy Modeling, 46.2 (2024), 235–53 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2024.01.002>
Ha, Le Thanh, Hoang Phuong Dung, and To Trung Thanh, ‘Bribery, Global Value Chain Decisions, and Institutional Constraints: Evidence from a Cross-Country Firm-Level Data’, International Economics, 173 (2023), 119–42 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2022.10.004>
Hanoteau, Julien, Jason Miklian, and Ralf Barkemeyer, ‘Business and Violent Conflict as a Multidimensional Relationship: The Case of Post-Reformasi Indonesia’, Business Horizons, 68.4 (2025), 425–38 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2025.02.014>
Henke, Alexander, Fahad Khalil, and Jacques Lawarree, ‘Honest Agents in a Corrupt Equilibrium’, Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 31.3 (2022), 762–83 <https://doi.org/10.1111/jems.12470>
Hock, Branislav, and Elizabeth Dávid-Barrett, ‘The Compliance Game: Legal Endogeneity in Anti-Bribery Settlement Negotiations’, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 71 (2022), 100560 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2022.100560>
Hu, Juncheng, Xiaorong Li, Keith Duncan, and Jia Xu, ‘Corporate Relationship Spending and Stock Price Crash Risk: Evidence from China’s Anti-Corruption Campaign’, Journal of Banking & Finance, 113 (2020), 105758 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2020.105758>
Igbinedion, Simeon A., and Anthony Osobase, ‘Grand Corruption in the Global South: Legal, Political and Economic Analysis of Assets Recovery in Nigeria’, Journal of Economic Criminology, 9 (2025), 100164 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100164>
Ijewereme, Ogbewere Bankole, ‘Governance Crises in Developing Countries: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives to Nigeria’s Public Sector’, International Journal of Public Administration, 43.16 (2020), 1376–85 <https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1669175>
Iqra, Moh, Syabani Korompot, and Al-fatih David, ‘The Principle of Equality Before the Law in Indonesian Corruption Case : Is It Relevant ?’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 1.3 (2021), 135–46
Jiang, Xin, Shan Cui, Bin Liang, Honglan Shuai, and Jianhong Liu, ‘Tigers vs. Flies: Impact of Official Ranks on Judicial Trials in PRC’s Anti-Corruption Campaign’, Crime, Law and Social Change, 80.1 (2023), 51–78 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-022-10072-9>
Jiménez, Alfredo, Julien Hanoteau, and Ralf Barkemeyer, ‘E-Procurement and Firm Corruption to Secure Public Contracts: The Moderating Role of Governance Institutions and Supranational Support’, Journal of Business Research, 149 (2022), 640–50 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.05.070>
Karianga, Hendra, ‘Law Reform and Improving Asset Recovery in Indonesia: Contemporary Approach’, Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, 93.August 2014 (2020), 2018–21 <https://doi.org/10.7176/jlpg/93-15>
Kim, Sahrok, K. Praveen Parboteeah, John B. Cullen, and Nara Jeong, ‘Social Institutions Approach to Women’s Firm Ownership and Firm Bribery Activity: A Study of Small-Sized Firms in Emerging Markets’, Journal of Business Research, 144 (2022), 1333–49 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.01.082>
Leasure, Peter, ‘Combatting the Global Crime of Bribery: A Report on Canadian Foreign Official Anti-Bribery Policy’, Journal of Financial Crime, 24.4 (2017), 496–512 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-11-2015-0065>
Liedong, Tahiru Azaaviele, Daniel Aghanya, Alfredo Jimenez, and Tazeeb Rajwani, ‘Corporate Political Activity and Bribery in Africa: Do Internet Penetration and Foreign Ownership Matter?’, Journal of Business Research, 154 (2023), 113326 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113326>
Lin, Chen, Randall Morck, Bernard Yeung, and Xiaofeng Zhao, ‘What Do We Learn from Stock Price Reactions to China’s First Announcement of Anti-Corruption Reforms?’, The Journal of Finance and Data Science, 9 (2023), 100096 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfds.2023.100096>
Makmur, Kartini Laras, ‘Why Only Scrutinise Formal Finance? Money Laundering and Informal Remittance Regulations in Indonesia’, Journal of Economic Criminology, 6 (2024), 100111 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100111>
Mattsson, Martin, ‘When Does Corruption Cause Red Tape? Bribe Discrimination under Asymmetric Information’, Journal of Public Economics, 250 (2025), 105483 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105483>
Mose, Naftaly, ‘Government Expenditure and Economic Growth: Does Corruption and Democracy Matter?’, Asian Journal of Economics, Business and Accounting, 24.5 (2024), 581–93 <https://doi.org/10.9734/ajeba/2024/v24i51332>
Muhamad, Nurisyal, and Norhaninah A. Gani, ‘A Decade of Corruption Studies in Malaysia’, Journal of Financial Crime, 27.2 (2020), 423–36 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-07-2019-0099>
Nuryanto, Ahmad Dwi, Reza Octavia Kusumaningtyas, and Bukhadyrov Habibullo, ‘The Imperative of Social Justice on the Insolvency and Workers’ Wage’, Journal of Sustainable Development and Regulatory Issues (JSDERI), 2.3 (2024), 209–32 <https://doi.org/10.53955/jsderi.v2i3.48>
Oyebanji, Oluwafemi Adesina, and Don John O. Omale, ‘An Assessment of the Factors of Economic and Financial Corruption by Public Officials in Nigeria’, Journal of Economic Criminology, 10 (2025), 100188 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100188>
Pahlevi, Farida, ‘Pemberantasan Korupsi Di Indonesia Perspektif Legal System Lawrence M. Freidmen’, El-Dusturie, 1.1 (2022) <https://doi.org/10.21154/eldusturie.v1i1.4097>
Pal, Saptarshi, and Christian Hilbe, ‘Reputation Effects Drive the Joint Evolution of Cooperation and Social Rewarding’, Nature Communications, 13.1 (2022), 5928 <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33551-y>
Pittaluga, Giovanni B., Elena Seghezza, and Pierluigi Morelli, ‘Media Fabrication of Corruption and the Quality of the Political Class: The Case of Italy’, European Journal of Political Economy, 84 (2024), 102461 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2023.102461>
Rahman, Fathor, and Muhammad Saiful Anam, ‘Hak Asasi Manusia Mantan Narapidana Korupsi Dalam Peraturan Komisi Pemilihan Umum Nomor 20 Tahun 2018 Perspektif Maqashid Syariah Jasser Auda’, Volksgeist: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum Dan Konstitusi, 3.2 (2020), 65–80 <https://doi.org/10.24090/volksgeist.v3i2.3905>
Rimšaitė, Laura, ‘Corruption Risk Mitigation in Energy Sector: Issues and Challenges’, Energy Policy, 125 (2019), 260–66 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.10.066>
Rukmono, Bambang Sugeng, Pujiyono Suwadi, and Muhammad Saiful Islam, ‘The Effectiveness of Recovering Losses on State Assets Policy in Dismissing Handling of Corruption’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 4.2 (2024), 299–330 <https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v4i2.259>
Saddiq, Abubakar Abubakar, and Abu Sufian Abu Bakar, ‘Perceptions on the Impact of Anti-Bribery Measures, Strategies and Programs on the Persistence of Bribery Practices in Nigeria’, Journal of Financial Crime, 29.4 (2022), 1356–69 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-08-2021-0181>
Sambo, Usman, and Babayo Sule, ‘Strategies of Combating Corruption in Nigeria: The Islamic Perspective’, International Journal of Islamic Khazanah, 11.1 (2021), 12–28 <https://doi.org/10.15575/ijik.v11i1.10813>
Sarhan, Ahmed A., and Ali Meftah Gerged, ‘Do Corporate Anti-Bribery and Corruption Commitments Enhance Environmental Management Performance? The Moderating Role of Corporate Social Responsibility Accountability and Executive Compensation Governance’, Journal of Environmental Management, 341 (2023), 118063 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118063>
Sovacool, Benjamin K., ‘Clean, Low-Carbon but Corrupt? Examining Corruption Risks and Solutions for the Renewable Energy Sector in Mexico, Malaysia, Kenya and South Africa’, Energy Strategy Reviews, 38 (2021), 100723 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2021.100723>
Srirejeki, Kiky, and Khairurrizqo Khairurrizqo, ‘The Role of Community Engagement as Corruption Control Strategy in Local Governments: Insights from Indonesia’, International Journal of Public Sector Management, 38.7 (2025), 872–94 <https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-12-2024-0407>
Stallkamp, Maximilian, ‘Does It Matter Where You Bribe? MNE Bribery, Social Norms and Legitimacy’, Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 32.3 (2025), 528–45 <https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-06-2024-0130>
Suardi, Imelda, Hilda Rossieta, Vera Diyanty, and Chaerul Djakman, ‘The Acceptance of Procurement System in Affecting Corruption in the Indonesian Government: User Perspective’, Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy, 14.4 (2025), 561–83 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JEPP-05-2024-0077>
Tangdenchai, Chomsorn, and Asda Chintakananda, ‘Can Money Buy Happiness? Bribery Practices and Ethical Awareness in Emerging Markets’, Society and Business Review, 19.3 (2024), 455–72 <https://doi.org/10.1108/SBR-07-2022-0184>
Wahyono, Herry Ludiro, Jati Utomo Dwi Hatmoko, and Rizal Z. Tamin, ‘State Financial Losses in Public Procurement Construction Projects in Indonesia’, Buildings, 9.5 (2019), 129 <https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9050129>
Wardana, Wahyu Wisnu, Tri Haryanto, Iqram Ramadhan Jamil, Nor Asmat Ismail, Unggul Heriqbaldi, Ebou Correa, and others, ‘Does Improved Accessibility Translate into Tourism Growth? A Difference-in-Differences Analysis of Bridge Infrastructure in Indonesia’, Annals of Tourism Research Empirical Insights, 6.2 (2025), 100189 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annale.2025.100189>
Yap, Jeffrey Boon Hui, Kai Yee Lee, and Martin Skitmore, ‘Analysing the Causes of Corruption in the Malaysian Construction Industry’, Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 18.6 (2020), 1823–47 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-02-2020-0037>
Yusof, Selamah Abdullah, and Mohd Nahar Mohd Arshad, ‘Estimations of Business Exposure to Corruption in Malaysia’, Journal of Financial Crime, 27.4 (2020), 1273–87 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-04-2020-0058>
Zaman, Qamar Uz, Kinza Aish, Waheed Akhter, and Syed Anees Haidder Zaidi, ‘Exploring the Role of Corruption and Money Laundering (ML) on Banking Profitability and Stability: A Study of Pakistan and Malaysia’, Journal of Money Laundering Control, 24.3 (2021), 525–43 <https://doi.org/10.1108/JMLC-07-2020-0082>